Introduction
Although there may be ‘nothing so practical as a good theory' (Lewin, 1951, p. 169), it is not evident that all practitioners see it that way. They often express considerable unease with and ambivalence towards research and theory, dismissing the value of theory, and being seemingly ‘hostile' to it (Kidd et al., 1994, p. 391). At times, Killeen & Watts (1983, p. 15) suggest, they assume that research will reveal ‘unassailable truths' and solve their problems, while at others they regard it 'with a mixture of impatience and derision', denying its relevance to their practice. Practitioners question 'whether current theories and research are able to inform practice and whether practice is ever allowed to inform theory' (Subich & Taylor, 1994, p. 174), and ‘accuse’ theorists and researchers of ignoring their concerns and dismissing the challenging realities confronting their clients (Savickas, in press).

Nevertheless, pure and applied theory, which provides the basis for the practitioner’s diagnosis and problem-solving, and the skills and attitudes to apply them to a particular client’s needs, constitute 'professional knowledge' or expertise (Schon, 1983, p. 24). Widespread scepticism among practitioners about the value of theory must, therefore, be a matter of concern, raising issues about its nature and relevance, and how it is introduced to and used by practitioners. With the re-structuring of training and the delivery of guidance, and changes in the clients’ world, these issues become even more critical, as recent publications demonstrate. This paper extends the discussion by examining the relationship between theory and practice, noting its significance within two ongoing debates: between the work-based competency and the academy-based approaches to training, and between the ‘modern’ and ‘postmodern’ understandings of theory and practice. The epistemological and philosophical issues touched upon here can be explored further in Polkinghorne (1984, 1992), Reason & Rowan (1981), Savickas (in press), and Sullivan (1984).
This paper is concerned with theory and practice in the field of career in particular, but, because many of the issues addressed are also encountered in other fields, such as management or counselling generally, its conclusions may have a wider applicability. It argues that practitioners need to become not only ‘reflective’ (Schon, 1983), but also researchers and theorists themselves, using approaches appropriate to their practice. Thus they will develop the frameworks needed to improvise effective responses to their clients’ changing situations. Not only would this have implications for initial and in-service training, supervision, and policy, but it would also challenge hitherto accepted relationships between researchers, theorists, practitioners and their clients.

The role of theory in practice: a sensitive topic
This proposal may appear to be at odds with current developments in education and training, which disregard the knowledge inputs into training but emphasise effective performance assessed through standards of competence. Embodied in the national framework of qualifications by the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (McNair, 1992), this approach is being felt in the counselling field through the work of the Advice, Guidance, Counselling and Psychotherapy Lead Body (McNair, 1992; Watson, 1994) and the new competency-based forms of training (e.g. Ford & Graham, 1994; Kidd et al., 1994, p. 138). The model of management increasingly adopted in counselling and guidance organisations also emphasises performance. With the introduction of competitive tendering and a 'contract culture' (Watson, 1994, p. 357), and the need for accountability (McChesney, 1995), managers are having to define the nature of the guidance they have contracted to deliver and ensure that it achieves the required standards (Watson, 1994, p. 357). However, one of the effects of these changes, McNair (1992, p. 135) suggests, will be to focus on guidance workers’ understanding of what they do. To ensure that their professional expertise is fully used, and their training needs identified, practitioners will have to contribute to their managers' definition of the guidance offered (Watson, 1994). Despite today’s emphasis upon performance, therefore, the changes taking place may well also encourage counsellors to examine their own practice, a key element of this paper’s argument, and generate a readiness to develop it.

Nevertheless, it is a ‘critical and sensitive time’ (Bimrose & Bayne, 1995) to be examining what are key issues in the argument between the proponents of the continuation of academy-based initial training for practitioners and those who argue for a change to a work-based competency approach. This is evident in the recent interchange between Bimrose & Bayne (1995) and Killeen & Kidd (1995) over the paper by Kidd et al. (1994, p. 388) on ‘the link between theory and practice in interviewing’. Entitled ‘Is guidance an applied science?’, the conclusions of the latter ‘cast doubt on the view’ that it is (p. 385):‘training enables careers officers to be effective practitioners, not reflective professionals' (p. 392). This is a matter of some significance in the competency debate, but Kidd et al. do not offer an explicit rationale for asking this particular question. Bimrose & Bayne (1995) appear to be guarding against the possibility of these conclusions being marshalled by the pro-competency camp by drawing attention to this omission, the ambiguity of the apparent contrast between ‘practitioners’ and ‘professionals’ and, in their view, other weaknesses of the paper. In a surprisingly touchy riposte, Killeen & Kidd (1995), while acknowledging that the anti-competency camp may well have some ‘cause for nervousness’ (p. 10 in MS), point out that their study, to be drawn upon later in this present paper, has, indeed, shown that theory has some influence upon practice, and a role in in-service training.

The role of theory in practice is, therefore, in terms of the competency debate, of topical, even political, interest. Having noted something of how practitioners learn about and use theory, and examined the relationship between theory and practice, this paper will then show how this relationship is also significant for another contemporary debate, that concerning modernism and postmodernism.

Learning to practise careers guidance and counselling
Despite the belief that practitioners find little relevance in theory, the very existence of studies such as that of Kidd et al. (1994), referred to above, and of careers officers' 'mental processes' when interviewing (Clarke, 1994), and their 'theoretical framework and model of professional practice' (Watson, 1994, p 360), suggests that much remains to be known about the relationship of theory to practice. Watson (1994 p.358) notes the lack of published research on how careers officers developed their 'personal models of guidance', and Irving & Williams (1995, p. 107) infer that ‘counsellors rely primarily on ... (an) intuitive approach’. This section will note some of the issues that emerge from these studies.

Students have to learn about the nature of career (‘career theory’) and of the counselling process itself (‘guidance theory’) (Kidd et al.,1994; Watson, 1994), and need both to ‘know what’ and ’know how’ (Savickas, 1994 a, p. 240). They have to acquire ‘know what’ about both careers and counselling, but also the ‘know how’ of counselling and of translating the ‘know what’ about careers into the ‘know how' of practice. Kidd et al. (1994, p. 386) note that it is difficult to achieve a balance between theory and practice in training, but Irving & Williams (1995), Kidd et al. (1994) and Watson (1994) all indicate that in initial training greater attention has been paid to the guidance than to the career theories, and to skills training rather than an appreciation of theoretical approaches. For example, Irving & Williams (1995, p.107) note that the ‘systematic, cognitive exploration of practitioners' knowledge’ is viewed as of ‘secondary importance’, or ‘ “unnecessary clutter” ’, while ‘a critical analysis of the ideas and assumptions that guide practice is often frowned on as “intellectualising” and is less valued than other ways of knowing’.

The study by Kidd et al. (1994) illustrates the perplexing task for trainers and students of addressing both theory and practice. It found 'little evidence' (p. 390) that students had first been introduced to guidance theory and then helped to apply it in practice; 'theoretical perspectives' and practical skills were taught in parallel. However, guidance theories were more influential on interviewing practice than career theories. The latter appear to have been introduced with 'little regard for academic criteria of validity or coherence' (p. 390), and although students need to be able 'to relate theories and concepts and eventually to integrate and reconcile them', most courses introduced theory pragmatically (p. 390). 'Conceptual integration seemed to be an infrequent activity’, students being encouraged ‘to make their own connections' (p. 390). Moreover, the implications for practice are paid little explicit attention. 'With respect to the best known career theories, then, guidance is not a direct application of theoretical principles' (p. 402); trainees ‘do not learn practical skills by applying theory’ (p. 390).

Kidd et al. note potential contradictions between some of the career and guidance theories in initial training. Watson (1994, p. 367) refers to conflict between the theoretical approaches taught: between the trait-and-factor approach, in which the careers officer has the role of expert, and the client-centred approach. There is, furthermore, conflict between the use of a 'rigid structure' and 'flexibility of approach' in interview training (p. 363). The tensions experienced in training persist into practice, Watson indicating that novices have difficulty in applying the theory learned and 'struggle to avoid the set structure they felt they had been taught' about interviewing (p. 366). The 'confusion' of and conflict between the two theoretical approaches referred to above creates further difficulty for them (p. 367), and casts doubt upon the purpose of the interview.

It takes several years of experience (Watson, 1994, p. 366) for 'the interplay of theory with practice' to create a 'personal philosophy and model of careers guidance' (p. 369). This involves 'the fusion of skills and theory', and is 'a complex and individual process, involving self-awareness and a thorough working knowledge of theories and models' (p. 367). Nevertheless, careers officers in the study by Kidd et al. (p. 401) did not view theory ‘as more relevant' as they gained in experience. The group discussion participants had a poor memory of and made a 'virtually unanimous' 'dismissal of the value’ of theory, apparently considering it ‘remote, abstract, irksome and not actually applied in practice’; some were seemingly ‘hostile’ to it (p. 391). However, the questionnaire respondents' prompted recall showed a more positive evaluation of the relevance to their practice of some theories, such as the client-centred approach and developmentalism (pp. 391 - 392). This should be interpreted in the light of the view expressed by Irving & Williams (1995, p.108) that counsellors ‘are not aware of the theories they use to inform their actions’ and that they 'say what they believe they are doing rather than what they are actually doing’. Nevertheless, the explanation Kidd et al. propose for this discrepancy offers potential insight into the process of ‘fusion’ (Watson,1994). It is that 'theory has "done its job" when its key messages have been communicated, internalised and assimilated as working assumptions' (p. 392). Guidance theory, in particular, appears to provide ‘axiomatic assumptions which subsequently act as premises in interview practice' (p. 402). Practitioners do not apply theory directly, but apply ‘broad principles, rather than specific formulas' (p. 392).

These reports demonstrate how the nature of theory and practice generates tensions in training, and presents practitioners with paradoxes which have to be resolved through their own personal ‘fusion’ (Watson, 1994). The relationship between theory and practice will now be examined more closely.

The relationship between theory and practice
Theory and practice appear very different in kind, as may be glimpsed in the contrast Parker and Shotter (1990, pp. 2 - 3) draw between academic text and ‘everyday face-to-face talk’. Academic text, through which practitioners will largely have encountered theory, needs to be comprehensible to a wide audience. It is, therefore,decontextualised, standardised, and expressed through predetermined meanings, even when it concerns contextualised practice (e.g. counselling) or argues for the need for contextualisation (Collin & Young, 1992). By contrast, 'everyday face-to-face talk', which approximates to the way in which practitioners and their clients engage, is contextualised, and ‘marked by its vagueness and openness ... only those taking part in it can understand its drift; the meanings are not wholly predetermined, they are negotiated by those involved'. Whereas academic text embodies bounded, systematic, rational, propositional, forms of knowledge, practice embodies contextualised, tacit (Polanyi, 1966), emotional, moral, and relational (e.g. Gilligan, 1982) forms, uses interpretation and analogy, and draws on 'social' and 'practical' intelligences (Sternberg, 1985).

‘Theory’ is a portmanteau term, but its core meaning is a systematic and organised set of propositions and of ‘abstract, decontextualized principles and categorical definitions’ (Savickas, 1994 a, p. 240) which is used to conjecture about, describe, explain and predict a part of reality. Krumboltz (1994, p. 9), for example, sees career theory as a way to explain what is observed, make sense of experience, and summarise a large number of observations into ‘a few general propositions’. Theory varies in kind and range, from ‘sophisticated overarching theories’ to ‘systems of interrelated concepts’ (Kidd et al., 1994, p. 386)’ (to be referred to below as ‘formal theory’ and ‘models’ respectively). These are clearly not discrete nor well-defined categories, and Kidd et al. (1994) themselves apply ‘theoretical’ to a variety of terms apparently interchangeably: ‘approaches’ (p. 386), ‘models’ (p. 388),‘frameworks’ (p. 391), and ‘principles’ (p. 392). ‘Theory’ may also express less structured constructs. In everyday speech, it may be used to denote abstractions of various kinds, while a focus on the process of theorising rather than its outcomes can embrace the notion of personal constructs (Kelly, 1955). By making and interrelating assumptions and building propositions upon them which, though not always systematic, explicit, rigorously informed and contexualised, nevertheless ‘work’ in practice, a person has ‘personal theories’ with which to conjecture, describe, explain and predict.

To understand the relationship between theory and practice, it is not only necessary to take into consideration the differences between them, but also those among researchers, theorists and practitioners. Some adopt the orthodox, positivist, Western approach, which applies the rational principles of the natural sciences to the social world, and accepts the existence of a relatively stable and ordered reality independent of the observer, 'where facts occur in a determinate order, and where, if enough were known, they could be predicted, or at least described' (Pepper, 1942, p. 143). Others make very different epistemological assumptions, accepting 'real indeterminateness in the world' (Harre, 1981, p. 3), with 'multitudes of facts rather loosely scattered about and not necessarily determining one another to any considerable degree’ (Pepper, 1942, pp. 142 - 143), and recognising that humans construct their reality from their particular perspective through their interactions and language.
Positivism has been very influential in career research (Walsh & Chartrand, 1994, p. 193; see also Savickas, in press), and informs three of the 'four main approaches underlying careers guidance practice in Britain', the ‘differentialist’, ‘behavioural’, and ‘structural’ (Watson ,1994, p. 358, largely agreed by Kidd et al.,1994, p. 392). The total field of career research and theory, however, is much richer than this (e.g. Arthur et al., 1989; Savickas & Lent, 1994), and within it there is a small but growing number of studies and theories which are straining the bounds of positivism, or rejecting it entirely (e.g.Young & Collin, 1992). In acknowledging the lived experience, context and ecology, meaning-making, biography and narrative of career, such approaches are not only framed in ways that are more meaningful to counsellors (Collin & Young, 1992;Young & Valach, in press), but are carried out in interpretive, collaborative ways which are sympathetic to counsellors’ values (Young & Collin, 1988; Collin & Young, 1992; Reason & Rowan, 1981).

Practitioners, too, may espouse positivism which, according to Schon (1983, p. 21), has given rise to the orthodox, 'technical rationality', model of professional knowledge. This approach accords greater value to general principles than to concrete problem solving: 'the more basic and general the knowledge, the higher the status of its producer' (p. 24). The role of the researcher, 'distinct from, and usually considered superior to’ that of the practitioner, is to provide the basic and applied knowledge which leads to diagnosic and problem-solving techniques (p. 26). In order to be accredited and legitimated, novices have to learn this basic and applied science - the formal theories and models - before they can learn the skills of application, which are 'an ambiguous, secondary kind of knowledge' (pp. 27 -8). Professionals following this 'traditional epistemology of practice', in which formal theory and models both play a role, impose their 'categories, theories, and techniques on the situation', ignoring, explaining away, or controlling 'those features of the situation, including the human beings within it’ which do not fit their prior categories (p. 345). Writing of a number of professions, including psychotherapy, Schon suggests (p.40) that this process defines both the nature and boundaries of a situation and the means for practitioners to address it. It constructs the reality with which they will then deal: ‘we name the things to which we will attend and frame the context in which we will attend to them'.

Schon’s view, however, does not accord with what was reported earlier of the training of careers officers (Kidd et al., 1994) or counsellors (Irving & Williams, 1995). This does not suggest that they are not professionals, in Schon’s sense, rather that, because counselling practice ‘treats human beings as agents responsible for making informed choices’, whereas positivist ‘career research essentially puts them in the same category as other natural objects’ (Polkinghorne, 1990, p. 87), they cannot translate much research directly into practice. In attempting to do so, they ‘lose much of the sophistication and complexity that theories can offer’ (Young & Valach, in press). Thus they filter the basic theories of their field through their own interpretive frameworks and overlay them with the experiential knowledge gained from trying to apply them in practice. This leads to ‘fusion’ (Watson, 1994), ‘responsiveness and flexibility’ (Killeen & Kidd, 1995), the ‘"common sense", intuitive approach’ (Irving & Williams, 1995, pp. 107 - 108), and a readiness to adopt an eclectic approach to theory (Bimrose & Bayne, 1995; Savickas, in press).

This creates considerable tensions and paradoxes in the teaching and learning of practitioners. It is (relatively) easy to teach decontextualised theory, but its very nature makes it difficult to apply in practice, especially when the field is a dynamic one. At the same time, it is difficult to teach practice: it has to be learned from experience in specific contexts. Novices need time to develop their practice, and in its early phases they often find the principles, concepts and classifications that positivist theory offers helpful.

All this points to the existence of an alternative approach to the generation of knowledge, an alternative epistemology of practice. Several are to be found in the literature, but it is not clear how they relate to one another, nor whether they are essentially one. The best known is that which Schon (1983, pp. 295 - 296) calls ‘reflective practice’. With their ‘repertoire of examples, images, understandings, and actions’ (Schon, 1983, p. 138), built up from both theory and experience, reflective practitioners are able to see a new situation as both familiar and unique, and to hypothesise about its ‘potential for transformation’ (p. 166). Approaching it as a ‘reflective conversation’ (p. 130), the practitioner ‘steps into the situation’, ‘reframes’ it, and ‘experiments’ with it to identify the consequences and implications of this frame. ‘The situation talks back, the practitioner listens’ (pp. 131 - 132), and where necessary ‘reframes’ again. Technical expertise is 'embedded in a context of meanings', creating the possibility of misunderstanding between practitioners and clients, and the need for their relationship, therefore, to take the form of a ‘reflective conversation’. Formal theory and models have a role to play, but they are used tentatively and experimentally.

Irving & Williams (1995) identify ways in which counsellors may be helped to become reflective practitioners; Thomas (1993) argues that managers should practice reflectively. This suggests that their practice is not essentially reflective, and that Schon’s reflective practice should be recognised as one variant of the alternative to the 'traditional epistemology of practice', characterised by the practitioner’s greater awareness of and reflection upon practice. The more common form may be that described by Thomas (1993, p. 214). He sees managers as ‘practical theorists’ (p. 211) who have to ‘improvise’, not simply ‘making it up as we go along’, but fitting together knowledge from various sources to 'inform practice in fruitful and productive ways’ (p. 214). Their ‘practical theory’ includes personal experiences, assumptions, values, as well as ideas from formal scientific theory, so that it is unique, with little direct overlap with formal theories. This notion accords well with the observation that, in fields like career or management where there are publicly agreed theories, practitioners still draw upon their practical ‘theories-in-use’ rather than their ‘espoused theories’ (Argyris & Schon, 1974; Irving & Williams, 1995). Managers’ ‘practical theory’ constitutes a map which helps them locate problems ‘in a meaningful context' so that they become manageable. The contribution of social science to this map is less the ‘technical, algorithmic knowledge’ which allows managers ‘to read off solutions to their problems’, but rather the ‘sensitizing frameworks’ of theories, concepts, and ‘ways of seeing and thinking’ that point to ‘alternative ways of understanding and hence of managing' (p. 214).

‘Practical theory’ is thus the ‘personal theory’ or constructs referred to earlier, but explicitly informed by the theories of the relevant field. It makes a valuable bridge between the concepts of theory and practice, and suggests that, though disparate, they become intertwined. Savickas (1994 a, p. 239) refers to this as an ‘intimate relationship’, one of ‘mutual shaping’, and suggests that theory and practice may not be dichotomous but a continuum, with ‘theorizing ... a form of practice, albeit practice at a distance’ (Savickas, 1994, p. 239). Hence, 'a theory is constructed through its use', 'the meaning of theory changes as it is used', and ‘situated activity, particularly the practice of career intervention, constructs the true meaning of career theories’ (Savickas, 1994 a, p. 240).

These interpretations are informed by the constructionist alternative noted earlier: from a positivist perspective, they are puzzling, if not illegitimate. The practices they refer to are the same but, because they are commonly interpreted, discussed and taught - and hence experienced - primarily in positivist terms, this alternative flickers uneasily into the practitioner’s awareness or remains submerged. However, it is likely that these interpretations will receive greater attention as the debate about postmodernism grows (see Kvale, 1992; Savickas, in press), and ‘practical theory’ is reframed as a post-modern approach. Polkinghorne (1992), for example, distinguishes the ‘psychology of practice’ from ‘academic psychology’ because it does not assume that knowledge represents external reality, because it re-interprets formal theories as ‘models or metaphors that can serve as heuristic devices’ and ‘templates for organizing client experiences’ (p. 155), because it does not seek overarching explanations but accepts localised, contextualised knowledges, because it recognises that reality is constructed, that constructions can change, and so accommodates previous understandings to each new unique situation, and because it focuses on practical knowledge that achieves intended ends. These, he argues, are characteristics of post-modern thinking, unlike ‘academic psychology’ which is modern, so that the ‘psychology of practice’ - or ‘practical theory’ - is an effective exemplar for a postmodern science (p. 146).

The recognition of this alternative epistemology of practice heightens rather than diffuses the competency debate. It augments rather than diminishes the need for training to attend to theory. This need, which the new challenges in the field of career, outlined in the next section, will increase, will be set out later.

New challenges in the field of career
The relevance to practitioners of much research and theory is already an issue: ‘one of the most poignant pleas I have heard in the last few years in counseling psychology is for researchers to do research that is relevant to the practitioner’, comments Harmon (1994, p. 232). Designed to achieve scientific rigour, it has often been too refined for practical application (Young & Valach, in press), while some was not particularly rigorous in the first place. Nevertheless, like the Seven-Point Plan (see Kidd et al., 1994), many theories have become taken-for-granted and embedded in the syllabus. However, the world of work is changing, and many theories are ‘simply not addressing the problems of most interest to either policymakers or the public’, are ‘slow in accounting for recent changes in the world of work' (Harmon, 1994, p. 231), and so are increasingly irrelevant because of these changes. It is to these that this paper now turns.

Looking across five countries, Pryor (1991) highlights 'multidimensional changes' in social, technological, political, economic and labour-market spheres. These changes present new threats and opportunities to clients and, hence, new challenges to career counselling; counsellors themselves are not exempt from some of them. To those already referred to in the introduction can be added the increasing politicisation of careers services (Pryor, 1991; Watts, 1991), exercised through performance measures and financial constraints: ‘more than ever before, we are asked to show that we spend both our research and practice efforts wisely’ (Harmon, 1994, p. 233).

Demography, unemployment, the nature of the employment contract, work opportunities for women and men, the information and communications revolution, the decline of some industries and emergence of others, globalisation, privatisation, organisational structures, the nature of jobs and skills: these are only some of the areas in which changes are taking place which impact upon careers. Many of them and their implications for career practitioners have already been discussed in this Journal (e.g., Hesketh & Kennedy, 1991; Taylor, 1994; Watts, 1991) or elsewhere (Bridges, 1995; Collin, 1994 a), and need not be rehearsed again here. What is relevant to note, though, is that their effects, in concert with those in other fields, are bringing about the recognition that career, as it has hitherto been known by theorists and practitioners, was a ‘modern project’ (Savickas, 1994 b; Savickas, in press).

What clients are now experiencing and presenting to practitioners is a ‘postmodern’ form of career (Savickas, 1994 b; Savickas, in press). Expressed differently, what was addressed by many theories in the past was largely the ‘bureaucratic’ form of career, whereas it is the ‘professional’ and ‘entrepreneurial’ forms which are becoming widespread today (Kanter, 1989). Or, put differently again, today’s organisations are ‘self-designing’, and call for ‘career improvisation’ (Weick and Berlinger, 1989). These changes are already calling into question key assumptions about career, such as the nature of the individual, jobs, occupations, organisations and the labour market. For example, the flatter and more flexible organisations required by, for example, business process reengineering (Hammer & Champy, 1994), the learning organisation (Pedler et al., 1991), or total quality management (Crosby, 1984), blur the nature of roles, organisational moves and view of the future for the individual, demanding instead multiskilling, team-working, and continuous improvement. The upward movement, and clearly defined roles, rewards and pathways of traditional careers in large organisations are disappearing, and with them, perhaps, the traditional prompts and supports for the individual’s identity and social status.

The disjunctive nature of such change means that practitioners will increasingly find that existing theories offer them little insight into their clients' situations, and that, as Savickas (in press) notes, practice has advanced further than theory. Where are the theories to ‘name’ and ‘frame’ these new experiences (Schon, 1983, p. 40)? The terrain is changing, and the old maps are no longer appropriate to guide practitioners through it.
The metaphor of the map recurs in this literature (for example, ‘cognitive maps of occupations’ to match clients with opportunities, Clarke, 1994, p. 254; the ‘redrawing of our maps of employment’ by National Vocational Qualifications, McNair, 1992, p. 148). It conveys the notion of identifying what was previously unknown or unfamiliar, and of bringing it under control and into a meaningful relationship with what is already familiar. In discussing the concerns that career theorists have about the nature of their theories, the degree of fragmentation in their field, and the implications for counselling practice (see Savickas & Lent, 1994), Krumboltz (1994, p. 16) suggests that
 

• Argyris, C. & Schon, D.A. (1974) Theory in Practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness (San Francisco, Jossey-Bass).
• Arthur, M.B., Hall, D.T., Lawrence, B.S. (1989) (Eds) Handbook of Career Theory (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).
• Bimrose, J. And Bayne, R. (1995) Effective professionals engaged in reflective practice: A response to Kidd et al., British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 23, pp. 395-399.
• Bridges, W. (1995) Jobshift: How To Prosper in a Workplace Without Jobs (London, Nicholas Brealey).
• Brookfield, S.D. (1987) Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting (Milton Keynes, Open University Press).
• Clarke, H. (1994) What are careers officers thinking of? How information cues are selected and used in careers interviews, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 22, 2, pp. 247-259.
• Collin, A. (1994a) Fracture lines for career, NICEC Bulletin, 42, Summer, pp. 6-11.
• Collin, A. (1994 b) Changing the Relationship Between Practitioners and Theorists/Researchers: From Vicious to Virtuous Circle, Background Paper, Guidance for Learning and Work: Anglo-Scottish Consultation, Glasgow, December.
• Collin, A. (in press) Changing the relationships between researchers, theorists and practitioners: A response to the changing context of career, in: M.L.SAVICKAS & W.B. WALSH (Eds) Integrating Career Theory and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).
• Collin, A. & Young, R.A. (1988) Career development and hermeneutical inquiry, Part II: Undertaking hermeneutical research, Canadian Journal of Counselling, 22, 4, pp. 191-201.
• Collin, A. & Young, R.A. (1992) Constructing career through narrative and context, in: R.A. YOUNG & A. COLLIN (Eds) Interpreting Career: Hermeneutical Studies of Lives in Context (Westport, CT, Praeger).
• Crosby, P. (1984) Quality Without Tears (New York, McGraw-Hill).
• Ford, C. & Graham, B. (1994) The new qualification in careers guidance in higher education: a collaborative partnership, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 22, 1, pp. 127-141.
• Gilligan, C. (1982) In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press).
• Hammer, M. & Champy, J. (1993) Reengineering the Corporation: A Manifesto for Business Revolution (New York: Harper Business).
• Harmon, L.W. (1994) Frustrations, daydreams, and realities of theoretical convergence, in: M.L. Savickas & R.W. Lent (Eds) Convergence in Career Development Theories: Implications For Science and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).
• Harre, R. (1981) The positivist-empiricist approach and its alternative, in: P. REASON & J. ROWAN ) (Eds) Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of New Paradigm Research (Chichester, Wiley).
• Hesketh, B. & Kennedy, L. (1991) Changes and responsibilities: Policy changes confronting careers guidance in New Zealand, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 19, 3, pp. 246-257.
• Irving, J.A. & Williams, D.I. (1995) Critical thinking and reflective practice in counselling, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 23, 1, pp. 107-114.
• Kanter, R.M. (1989) Careers and the wealth of nations: A macro-perspective on the structure and implications of career forms, in: M.B. Arthur, D.T. Hall, B.S. Lawrence, (Eds) Handbook of Career Theory (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
• Kelly, G.A. (1955) The Psychology of Personal Constructs (New York, Norton).
• Kidd, J.M., Killeen, J., with Jarvis, J., Offer, M. (1994) Is guidance an applied science?: the role of theory in the careers guidance interview, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 22, 3, pp. 385-403.
• Killeen, J. & Kidd, J.M. (1995) A rejoinder to Bimrose and Bayne, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 23, pp. 401-408.
• Killeen, J. & Watts, A.G. (1983) The place of research in careers guidance, Careers Bulletin, Spring, pp. 15 - 17.
• Krumboltz, J.D. (1994) Improving career development theory from a social learning perspective, in: M.L. Savickas & R.W. Lent (Eds), Convergence in Career Development Theories: Implications for Science and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).
• Kvale, S. (Ed) (1992) Psychology and Postmodernism (London, Sage).
• Lewin, K. (1951) Field Theory in Social Science (Chicago, University of Chicago Press).
• McChesney, P. (1995) Yes, but how? Development and evaluation of careers education in higher education by careers advisers, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 23, pp. 327-345.
• McNair, S. (1991) New maps for old: Guidance and the reform of vocational qualifications, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 20, 1, pp. 129 - 149.
• McNiff, J. (1988) Action Research: Principles and Practice (Basingstoke, Macmillan).
• Parker, I. & Shotter, J. (1990) Introduction, in: I. PARKER & J. SHOTTER (Eds) Deconstructing Social Psychology (London, Routledge).
• Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J., Boydell, T. (1991) The Learning Company: A Strategy For Sustainable Development (London, McGraw-Hill).
• Pepper, S.C. (1942) World Hypotheses: A Study in Evidence (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press).
• Polanyi, M. (1966) The Tacit Dimension (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul).
• Polkinghorne, D.E. (1984) Further extensions of methodological diversity for counseling psychology, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31, 4, pp. 416-429.
• Polkinghorne, D.E. (1990) Action theory approaches to career research, in: R.A. YOUNG And W.A. BORGEN (Eds) Methodological Approaches to the Study of Career (New York, Praeger).
• Polkinghorne, D.E. (1992) Postmodern epistemology of practice, in: S. Kvale (Ed) Psychology and Postmodernism (London, Sage).
• Pryor, R.G.L. (1991) Policy challenges confronting careers guidance: Introduction, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 19, 2, pp. 225-229.
• Reason, P. & Rowan, J. (Eds) (1981) Human Inquiry: A Sourcebook of New Paradigm Research (Chichester, Wiley).
• Savickas, M.L. (1994 a) Convergence prompts theory renovation, research unification, and practice coherence, in: M.L. Savickas & R.W. Lent (Eds), Convergence in Career Development Theories: Implications for Science and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).
• Savickas, M.L. (1994 b) Fracture lines in career counselling, NICEC Bulletin, 42, Summer, pp. 18-21.
• Savickas, M.L. (in press) Current theoretical issues in vocational psychology: Convergence, divergence, and schism, in: W.B. Walsh & S.H. Osipow (Eds) Handbook of Vocational Psychology, 2nd edn (Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum).
• Savickas, M.L. & Lent, R.W. (1994) (Eds) Convergence in Career Development Theories: Implications for Science and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).
• Savickas, M.L & Walsh, W.B (in press) (Eds) Integrating Career Theory and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).
• Schon, D.A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action (New York, Basic Books).
• Sternberg, R.J. (1985) Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).
• Subich, L.M. & Taylor, K.M. (1994) Emerging directions of social learning theory, in: M.L.Savickas & R.W. Lent (Eds) Convergence in Career Development Theories: Implications For Science and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).
• Sullivan, E.V. (1984) A Critical Psychology: Interpretation of the Personal World (New York, Plenum).
• Taylor, K.F. (1994) Whatever happened to vocational guidance? British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 22, 3, pp. 447-455.
• Thomas, A. (1993) Controversies in Management (London, Routledge).
• Walsh, W.B. & Chartrand, J..M. (1994) Emerging directions in person-environment fit, in: M.L. Savickas & R.W. Lent (Eds) Convergence in Career Development Theories: Implications for Science and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).
• Watson, C. (1994) Improving the quality of careers guidance: Towards an understanding of the development of personal models, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 22, 3, pp. 357-372.
• Watts, A.G. (1991) The impact of the ‘new right’: Policy challenges confronting careers guidance in England and Wales, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 19, 3, pp. 230-245.
• Weick, K.E. & Berlinger, L.R. (1989). Career improvisation in self-designing organizations, M.B. Arthur, D.T. Hall, B.S. Lawrence, (Eds) Handbook of Career Theory (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).
• Young, R.A & Collin, A. (1988) Career development and hermeneutical inquiry, Part I: The framework for a hermeneutical approach, Canadian Journal of Counselling, 22, 3, pp. 153-161.
• Young, R.A. & Collin, A. (Eds) (1992) Interpreting Career: Hermeneutical Studies of Lives in Context (Westport, CT, Praeger).
• Young, R.A & Valach, L. (in press) Interpretation and action in career counseling, in: M.L.Savickas & W.B. Walsh (Eds) Integrating Career Theory and Practice (Palo Alto, CA, CPP Books).